Master10
Religions, Philosophies & Belief Systems Module

Six Schools of Indian Philosophy (Shad Darshanas)

Classical Indian intellectual traditions classify philosophical systems into orthodox (Astika) and heterodox (Nastika) based on the acceptance of Vedic authority. The six orthodox schools, known collectively as the Shad Darshanas, systematically address epistemology, metaphysics, and liberation. Samkhya, founded by sage Kapila, posits dualistic realism between Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (matter). Patanjali's Yoga provides practical eight-limbed (Ashtanga) psychological discipline. Gautama's Nyaya establishes rigorous logical epistemology through four valid means of knowledge (Pramanas), complemented by Kanada's Vaisheshika atomic theory of the physical universe. Purva Mimamsa by Jaimini focuses on Vedic hermeneutics and ritual action, while Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta), systematized by Badarayana and interpreted by Shankaracharya and Ramanuja, examines non-dual metaphysical reality (Brahman).

Key Concepts & Examination Highlights

  • The Shad Darshanas are Samkhya (Kapila), Yoga (Patanjali), Nyaya (Gautama), Vaisheshika (Kanada), Mimamsa (Jaimini), and Vedanta (Badarayana).
  • Nyaya philosophy recognizes four valid means of knowledge (Pramanas): Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Upamana (comparison), and Shabda (testimony).
  • Vaisheshika philosophy formulated an early atomic theory (Paramanu) categorizing the physical cosmos into six distinct padarthas (categories).
  • Advaita Vedanta, formulated by Adi Shankaracharya, asserts absolute non-dualism between the individual soul (Atman) and ultimate reality (Brahman).
  • Nyaya philosophy, founded by sage Gautama in the Nyaya Sutras, is an epistemology-driven school recognizing four valid sources of knowledge (Pramanas): Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Upamana (comparison), and Shabda (testimony).
  • Vaisheshika philosophy, formulated by sage Kanada in the Vaisheshika Sutras, introduced an atomic theory of the physical universe, categorizing all existence into six fundamental Padarthas (categories of reality).
  • Purva Mimamsa, founded by sage Jaimini in the Mimamsa Sutras, emphasizes the eternal infallibility of Vedic ritual injunctions and the philosophy of Dharma.
  • Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) was formulated by Ramanujacharya in the 11th century CE, holding that the individual soul (Jiva) and the material world (Jagat) are real attributes of Brahman (Vishnu).
  • Dvaita Vedanta (dualism) was propounded by Madhvacharya in the 13th century CE, asserting an absolute eternal ontological separation between God (Vishnu), individual souls, and matter.
  • Shuddhadvaita (pure non-dualism) was propounded by Vallabhacharya, establishing the devotional Pushtimarg tradition centered on Lord Krishna.
  • The heterodox (Nastika) schools that reject the authority of the Vedas include Carvaka (Lokayata materialism founded by Brihaspati), Buddhism, and Jainism.
  • Sage Kapila founded the Samkhya school, expounded systematically in Ishvarakrishna's 'Samkhyakarika' (c. 4th century CE) based on 25 cosmic principles (Tattvas).
  • Samkhya posits that creation evolves from the disturbance of the equilibrium of three Gunas in Prakriti: Sattva (purity/light), Rajas (activity/passion), and Tamas (inertia/darkness).
  • Patanjali's Yoga Sutras establish the Eight Limbs of Yoga (Ashtanga Yoga): Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi.
  • Patanjali defines Yoga in the second aphorism as 'Yogas Chitta Vritti Nirodhah' (the cessation of the fluctuations of the mind).
  • The Nyaya school developed a rigorous syllogistic method comprising five limbs (Avayavas): Pratijna (proposition), Hetu (reason), Udaharana (example), Upanaya (application), and Nigamana (conclusion).
  • Vaisheshika identifies nine fundamental physical and non-physical substances (Dravyas): earth, water, fire, air, ether (Akasha), time, space, soul (Atman), and mind (Manas).
  • Sage Jaimini's Purva Mimamsa Sutras is the longest of all classical philosophical texts, comprising 12 chapters devoted to Vedic ritual hermeneutics and Vedic authority (Apaurusheyatva).
  • Shabara Swami authored the authoritative early commentary (Bhashya) on Jaimini's Mimamsa Sutras, which was later expanded by the rival sub-schools of Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara.
  • Badarayana's Brahma Sutras synthesized the Upanishads and provided the foundational aphorisms upon which all major Vedanta traditions built their theology.
  • Achintya Bheda-Abheda (Inconceivable Oneness and Difference) was propounded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and systematized by Baladeva Vidyabhushana in the Govinda Bhashya.
  • Bhedabheda (Difference and Non-Difference) Vedanta was propounded by Nimbarkacharya, who emphasized the worship of Radha and Krishna through the Sanakadi Sampradaya.
  • Ajita Kesakambali was an ancient 6th-century BCE materialist philosopher who denied karma and afterlife, advocating that humans are composed purely of four material elements.
  • Prabhakara Mimamsa recognized five Pramanas (sources of knowledge), adding Arthapatti (postulation), while Kumarila Bhatta recognized six Pramanas, including Anupalabdhi (non-perception).
  • Vachaspati Mishra composed the encyclopedic commentary 'Bhamati' on Shankara's Brahma Sutra Bhashya, establishing the Bhamati school of Advaita Vedanta.
  • The Six Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy, collectively known as the 'Shad Darshanas', accept the supreme authority of the Vedas (Astika systems): Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta.
  • The heterodox (Nastika) systems reject Vedic authority and include Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka (Lokyata materialism).
  • Samkhya is India's oldest dualistic rational philosophy, founded by Sage Kapila in the 'Samkhya Sutras' and definitively codified by Ishvarakrishna in the 4th-century CE 'Samkhya Karika'.
  • Samkhya posits two ultimate eternal and independent realities: 'Purusha' (pure unattached conscious self) and 'Prakriti' (unconscious primordial matter consisting of three Gunas: Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas).
  • According to Samkhya, cosmic evolution unfolds from Prakriti in 24 principles (Tattvas), starting with Mahat/Buddhi (cosmic intellect), Ahamkara (ego-sense), Manas (mind), 5 sense organs, 5 motor organs, 5 subtle elements, and 5 gross elements.
  • Yoga philosophy, closely allied with Samkhya metaphysics while adding the concept of Ishvara (Personal God), was codified by Sage Patanjali in the 'Yoga Sutras'.
  • Patanjali defines Yoga as 'Chitta Vritti Nirodha' (the cessation of mental fluctuations) achieved through the Eight Limbs of Classical Yoga (Ashtanga Yoga).
  • The Eight Limbs of Patanjali's Yoga are: Yama (ethical restraints), Niyama (observances), Asana (postures), Pranayama (breath control), Pratyahara (sense withdrawal), Dharana (concentration), Dhyana (meditation), and Samadhi (absorption).
  • The five Yamas are Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (continence), and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness).
  • Nyaya philosophy was founded by Sage Akshapada Gautama in the 'Nyaya Sutras', establishing rigorous rules for logical epistemology, syllogistic deduction, and philosophical debate (Vada).
  • Nyaya accepts four valid sources of knowledge (Pramanas): Pratyaksha (direct perception), Anumana (inference), Upamana (comparison/analogy), and Shabda (reliable verbal testimony).
  • The Nyaya syllogism (Pararthanumana) requires five constituent members: Pratijna (proposition), Hetu (reason), Udaharana (universal statement with example), Upanaya (application), and Nigamana (conclusion).
  • Vaisheshika philosophy was founded by Sage Kanada (Uluka) in the 'Vaisheshika Sutras', proposing an atomic pluralist metaphysics (Paramanuvada).
  • Kanada asserted that the physical universe is composed of indivisible, eternal atoms (Paramanus) of four physical elements: Earth (Prithvi), Water (Ap), Fire (Tejas), and Air (Vayu), existing in Ether (Akasha), Time (Kala), Space (Dik), Soul (Atman), and Mind (Manas).
  • Vaisheshika classifies all knowable reality into seven categories (Padarthas): Dravya (substance), Guna (quality), Karma (action), Samanya (generality), Vishesha (particularity), Samavaya (inherence), and Abhava (non-existence).
  • Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa) was founded by Sage Jaimini in the 'Mimamsa Sutras', focusing on the hermeneutical interpretation and ritual injunctions (Dharma) of the early Brahmana portions of the Vedas.
  • Purva Mimamsa maintains the theory of 'Svatah Pramanyavada' (intrinsic validity of knowledge) and asserts the eternal, uncreated, and authorless nature of the Vedas (Apaurusheyatva).
  • Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara Mishra established the two dominant rival sub-schools of Purva Mimamsa, debating the nature of error (Khyativada) and the number of valid Pramanas.
  • Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa) was founded on the 'Brahma Sutras' (Vedanta Sutras) composed by Sage Badarayana, synthesizing the metaphysical teachings of the Upanishads.
  • The foundational canon of Vedanta is known as the 'Prasthanatrayi' (Three Source Texts): the Principal Upanishads (Shruti Prasthana), the Bhagavad Gita (Smriti Prasthana), and the Brahma Sutras (Nyaya Prasthana).
  • Adi Shankara (8th century CE) expounded Advaita Vedanta (Absolute Non-Dualism), propounding that Nirguna Brahman alone is real, the empirical world is Maya, and Atman is identical with Brahman.
  • Ramanuja (11th century CE) expounded Vishishtadvaita Vedanta (Qualified Non-Dualism), holding that Saguna Brahman (Vishnu/Narayana) possesses real individual souls (Chit) and matter (Achit) as His divine body.
  • Madhva (13th century CE) expounded Dvaita Vedanta (Uncompromising Dualism), establishing absolute, eternal differences (Bheda) between God, individual souls, and matter.
  • Charvaka (Lokyata) philosophy, attributed to Brihaspati, is an ancient materialist school rejecting the afterlife, karma, soul, and Vedic rituals, accepting only direct perception (Pratyaksha) as valid knowledge.
  • Prabhakara Mimamsa developed the theory of 'Akhyati' (non-apprehension) to explain perceptual error, while Kumarila Bhatta formulated 'Viparitakhyati' (misapprehension).
Curriculum & Reference Sources: Indian Council of Philosophical Research (ICPR), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan's Indian Philosophy, Sahitya Akademi

Sample Solved Questions & Concept Explanations

8 Verified Concept Questions
Q1.MEDIUM

Who was the ancient sage credited with authoring the 'Nyaya Sutras', the foundational text of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy based on logic and epistemology?

Q2.EASY

Which ancient sage is traditionally revered as the founder of the dualistic Samkhya school of classical Indian philosophy, asserting the dual realities of Purusha and Prakriti?

Q3.EASY

Who authored the foundational 'Yoga Sutras', formulating the eight-limbed (Ashtanga) system of practical spiritual discipline?

Q4.EASY

Which ancient philosopher founded the Vaisheshika school of natural philosophy, formulating the earliest Indian atomic theory of indivisible particles (Paramanu)?

Q5.EASY

Who is the traditional author of the 'Mimamsa Sutras', establishing the Purva Mimamsa school focused on Vedic ritual hermeneutics and Dharma?

Q6.EASY

Which great 8th-century philosopher consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta (Absolute Non-Dualism), propounding that Brahman alone is real and the individual soul (Jiva) is identical to Brahman?

Q7.EASY

What are the eight limbs of classical Ashtanga Yoga in correct sequential order according to Patanjali's Yoga Sutras?

Q8.EASY

The 'Prasthanatrayi' (Three Canonical Sources) serving as the authoritative foundation for all Vedanta philosophical traditions comprises which three sacred texts?